Всеобщая история и международные отношения

The article is devoted to one of the most important aspects in England’s history of the second half of the XVI century, in particular, the transformation of the English economy at the beginning of the early Modern Times. The issues of formation and structure of the Ishams’ family corporation which was set up and functioned within the company of the Merchant Adventurers as well as peculiarities of their trade are examined basing on the analysis of «Two Account Books of John Isham».

The article is devoted to basic stages of Erich von Falkenhayn’s (1861–1922) biography, who was the head of German armed forces in 1914–1916. Analyzing on the basis of different sources style of making decisions, his relations with competitors from the military elite, finally replaced him on a post of head of OHL, author dismisses some popular historiography’s myths, comes to conclusion about an injustice of in an estimation both most Falkenhayn, and strategy he preferred.

Based on the materials of the memoirs of the participants of the events and the business correspondence of the embassy with the British government, the image of the Spanish people in the representations of the British ambassador to Spain – Samuel Hoare, who held the post from 1940 to 1944, is considered. The Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 led to a crisis in many spheres of society. The author comes to the conclusion that the conflict within the state has led to a deep cultural split in Spanish society.

The article is devoted to topical issues of the Masonic movement in England at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. Particular attention is paid to the development of the New Masonry in England. The author analyzes the most pressing issues of the transformation of the national Masonic organization. The activities and views of the organizers of the New Masonry are considered.

The article examines one of the facets of the industrial revolution process associated with shifts in the social structure of society and changes in behavioral practices. The main attention is focused on the analysis of the views of the writer, philanthropist and teacher H. Morе. In her writings, H. More tried to contribute to strengthening social stability in society by educating “true ladies”, on the one hand, and educating obedient poor, on the other hand. 

The article discussesthemilitary career ofthe Englishman Giovanni Aguto, amercenary captain who servedthe Italian city-states of Italy and the Papal States for a long time. Based on the material of the Florentine chronicles the brothers Giovanni and Matteo Vilanni, Marchione Stefani, information reported by anonymous authors, the path from an ordinary mercenary to a famous condottiere and honorary citizen of Florence is shown.

The article examines the relations between London and the cities of Continental Europe in the first period of the Hundred Years’ War. It is shown that the beginning of the conflict for the citizens of London was associated with the need to strengthen the security of the city, supply armed detachments, subsidize the crown. London maintained contacts with the cities of Continental Europe, primarily Flanders, “English Gascony” and Normandy.

The article is devoted to the study of the evolution of the national climate policy from the moment of its emergence in the USSR in the 1960s and 1970s until the end of the active phase of cooperation between Moscow and Western countries in this area at the end of 2021. The main stages of climate policy,factors of evolution and impact onthe Russian economy are considered. It is concludedthatthe cooperation ofthe Russian Federation with Western countries on the issue of global warming was built on a solid foundation, which can become the basis for future dialogue.

This article analyses the draft reorganization of the administration of the border counties between England and Scotland, which was submitted to the monarch by Thomas Wharton. Thomas Wharton, a nobleman from Westmorland, had long held various posts in the frontier administration and was considered one of the most experienced and loyal nobles of the frontier. In his project, Wharton proposed a precise fixation of the rules of frontier administration and a concentration of strategically important land holdings and frontier strongholds in the monarch’s hands.

One of the important problems for the English cities of the Tudor era was the managementt of finances. The main income was from real estate, which was supplemented by duties and fines. Fees of city officials, utilities, and hospitality accounted for three-quarters of all Worcester’s urban spending. The main problem was inflation and relatively stable income from urban property, which forced municipal authorities to look for new ways to solve financial problems.